Nigeria

Late in the month, ethnic strife between the Ijaw and Itsekiri groups in the Niger River delta disrupted oil output (Reuters).

Venezuela

Carlos Ortega was given political asylum by Costa Rica (Reuters).

1 MARCH 2003

Pakistan

Agents captured Khalid Sheikh Mohammed in Rawalpindi. He was believed to be one of the most important al Qaeda leaders after Osama bin Laden, involved with planning its operations and vetting its recruits. On 10 March 2007, according to a transcript of a hearing at Guantanamo Bay released by the US military, Mohammed said, "I was responsible for the 9/11 Operation, from A to Z....I was the operational director for Sheikh Usama Bin Laden for the organizing, planning, follow-up, and execution of the 9/11 operation." He also said he was responsible for the 1993 World Trade Center attack and the 2002 attack on Bali island, Indonesia, among other operations (Reuters).

Turkey, foreign policy

Parliament rejected a proposal to allow US troops to operate from Turkish bases. The vote was 264 in favor and 251 against with 19 abstentions; under the parliament's rules a majority of those present had to approve.1

3 MARCH 2003

Israel, Gaza Strip

The army raided Bureij refugee camp, arresting Mohammed Taha, one of the original leaders of Hamas when it was founded in 1987 (Reuters).

4 MARCH 2003

Philippines

A bomb exploded at Davao airport, killing 20 people (Reuters).

5 MARCH 2003

Iraq

Nine more al Samoud ballistic missiles were destroyed, bringing the total destroyed to 28 (Reuters).

Armenia, Politics

In the presidential runoff, President Robert Kocharyan defeated Stepan Demirchyan 67.4% to 32.6%. Both had said they favor reform and resolving the Nagorno-Karabakh dispute with Azerbaijan (Rulers (www.rulers.org), Reuters).

Egypt

Half a million people attended a government-sponsored peace rally in Cairo (Reuters).

Colombia

A bomb exploded at a shopping mall in Cucuta, killing seven. Police blamed the National Liberation Army (ELN) (Reuters).

5-6 MARCH 2003

Israel

On the 5th, a suicide bombing of a bus in Haifa, apparently carried out by Hamas, killed 16. On that day and the next, Israeli forces raided Jabalya refugee camp in the Gaza Strip (Reuters).

6 MARCH 2003

Venezuela

President Hugo Chavez announced the lifting of force majeure on the country's oil exports. He said oil output had been restored to 2.658 million BPD, though the opposition said it was much lower. Chavez made the announcement at a ceremony to swear in a new PDVSA management board, saying, "I am absolutely sure that this board will serve to speed the process of renationalizing and reconsolidating a successful, solid and nationalistic PDVSA in the 21st century." He said the 15,000 PDVSA employees fired during the strike would not be allowed to return (Reuters).

7 MARCH 2003

Iraq

UNMOVIC Chairman Hans Blix and IAEA director Mohamed ElBaradei reported to the UN Security Council. Blix reported that Iraq had destroyed 34 al Samoud missiles, four training missiles, two combat warheads, one launcher, five engines and two casting chambers since 1 March, but that its cooperation still fell short of UN Security Council demands. ElBaradei said, "After three months of intrusive inspections, we have to date found no evidence or plausible indication of the revival of a nuclear weapons program in Iraq" (Reuters).

Israel, Gaza Strip

Israeli forces including about 50 armored vehicles advanced to the edge of Jabalya refugee camp and Beit Hanoun and took up defensive positions (Reuters).

8 MARCH 2003

Israel, Gaza Strip

Four Israeli attack helicopters ambushed and killed Ibrahim al-Maqadma as he was travelling in his car with three other militants. Maqadma was the leader of Hamas' military wing, and Hamas leaders acknowledged that his loss was a major one.

Over 70,000 Palestinians marched at his funeral in Gaza City (Reuters).

11 MARCH 2003

Diplomatic Affairs

The International Criminal Court (ICC) swore in its first 18 judges in a ceremony at The Hague, Netherlands. A prosecutor is expected to be appointed next month (Reuters).

12 MARCH 2003

Serbia and Montenegro

Serbian Prime Minister Zoran Djindjic was assassinated outside Belgrade's main government building, reportedly by a sniper. The government declared a state of emergency and blamed the killing on a criminal group called the Zemun (Reuters).

14 MARCH 2003

Turkey, Politics

Tayyip Erdogan was installed as Prime Minister (Reuters).

15 MARCH 2003

Central African Republic

Rebels loyal to Francois Bozize entered Bangui. President Ange-Felix Patasse, en-route home from a regional summit in Niger, was forced to divert to Yaounde, Cameroon (Reuters).

Pakistan

Authorities arrested Moroccan national Yasir al-Jaziri in Lahore. Al-Jaziri is believed to be involved in al Qaeda's business operations, and to be almost as important as Khalid Sheikh Mohammad (Reuters).

Asia and the Pacific

There were protests around the region against a prospective US-led invasion of Iraq, including one of around 10,000 in Tokyo (Reuters).

Europe

About 300,000 anti-war protestors gathered in Barcelona, and hundreds of thousands demonstrated in Madrid. It was estimated that around 150,000 demonstrated across France. More than 100,000 participated in a protest in Berlin. Thirty thousand demonstrated in Brussels and 20,000 did so in Athens (Reuters).

Serbia and Montenegro

Police estimated half a million people participated in the funeral of Zoran Djindjic in Belgrade (Reuters).

15-16 MARCH 2003

China, Politics

On the 15th, the National People's Congress selected Communist Party chief Hu Jintao to be President. The next day it confirmed Wen Jiabao as premier (Reuters).

16 MARCH 2003

Diplomatic affairs

US President Bush, British Prime Minister Blair and Spanish Prime Minister Jose Maria Aznar met in the Azores to discuss Iraq. They agreed to give Saddam Hussein exactly 24 hours to comply with all outstanding UN resolutions if military action were not to begin.2

17 MARCH 2003

United States, foreign policy

In an evening televised address, President Bush delivered an ultimatum to the Iraqi government. "All the decades of deceit and cruelty have now reached an end. Saddam Hussein and his sons must leave Iraq within 48 hours. Their refusal to do so will result in military conflict, commenced at a time of our choosing", he said. Bush said the removal of the Hussein regime was necessary to enforce UN resolutions concerning Iraq's WMD disarmament and to liberate Iraqis from Hussein's oppression (The White House).

18 MARCH 2003

Australia, foreign policy

Prime Minister John Howard said his country would contribute military forces to any campaign against Iraq (Reuters).

18-19 MARCH 2003

Israel, West Bank and Gaza Strip

On the 18th, the Palestinian Authority (PA) created the post of prime minister, which will take over from Yasser Arafat the day-to-day running of the PA and have the power to approve cabinet members. Arafat will remain in charge of security and peace negotiations and can dismiss the prime minister. The next day, Arafat appointed Mahmoud Abbas, or Abu Mazen, to the post (Reuters).

19 MARCH 2003

Iraq

US special forces were already in the country going after missile and NBC sites and other targets.3

20 MARCH 2003

Iraq

A little after 0400 local time, the US ultimatum expired. Just after 0530, US aircraft and Tomahawk sea-launched cruise missiles (SLCM) struck Baghdad in an attempt to kill senior political leaders.4 President Bush described this and other strikes as "opening stages of what will be a broad and concerted campaign" (Reuters).

Most of the forces committed to the invasion of Iraq, designated Operation Iraqi Freedom (Operation Telic in British phraseology), were already in place by early March.5 By the time of the invasion, US Central Command (CENTCOM) commander General Tommy Franks had some 300,000 military personnel, including British forces, in his area of operations. There were about 160,000 US and British ground force personnel in Kuwait, organized into the US V Corps, US 1st Marine Expeditionary Force (I MEF) and the British 1st Armoured Division (actually a mix of heavy and light elements). These formations comprised approximately two tank-heavy and two relatively light division-equivalents plus considerable additional sub-echelon units of armor, artillery and attack helicopters.6

At sea, the US had some dozen nuclear-powered attack submarines (SSNs, most armed with Tomahawk SLCM), three aircraft carriers (CVs) and about 40-45 other major surface combatants in the Persian Gulf and Arabian Sea, plus two nuclear-powered aircraft carriers (CVNs) with escorting battle groups in the Mediterranean Sea. These forces were to be used mainly for strikes in support of ground offensive operations. The British also deployed a sizable force including the carrier Ark Royal, two SSNs and six destroyers/frigates.7

In the air, the coalition had around 1,150 aircraft available for operations (compared to 2,600 on the eve of the 1991 campaign). US forces included some 80 F-15, F-16 and F-117 FGA in Kuwait, a smaller force in Saudi Arabia, some 50 F-15, F-16 and A-10 aircraft at Incirlik in Turkey, and B-1 and B-52 bombers in Oman and at Diego Garcia. The British deployed over 60 FGA in the region.8

Estimates for the size of the Iraqi military prior to the invasion vary widely. Total Iraqi ground forces were estimated by the Americans to consist of some 330,000-430,000 men.9 However, another source argues that Iraqi field forces were distinctly understrength, and that the regular army, Republican Guard, and Special Republican Guard troops who deployed for the war probably numbered no more than 180,000.10 The training and reliability of most units was questionable. The most reliable units were the six Republican Guard divisions, most of which were deployed near Baghdad. The line divisions numbered 17, many of which were deployed in the central or northern part of the country.11 Turkey had no intention of participating in the invasion. However, Franks had succeeded, through a deception campaign aimed at the Iraqi high command, in persuading Hussein that Turkey would decide at the last minute to become involved.12 Also, since Hussein's defeat in the 1991 war, the independence-minded Kurdish ethnic group in the north had managed to secure some territory free of Iraqi government control and had to be contained. The Iraqi army's 5th and 1st Corps, deployed against the Kurds and near Turkey, had eight divisions.13 There were also irregular forces, including Saddam Fedayeen (Saddam's Martyrs). These paramilitary forces, though poorly trained and equipped, were fiercely loyal to Saddam Hussein and managed to sometimes be troublesome. Foreign fighters sometimes turned up among the Fedayeen, particularly Syrians during the defense of Baghdad.14 The coalition expected Fedayeen to be in Baghdad in large numbers, but it became apparent as the campaign went on that Hussein had sent many of them south to the major cities along the Euphrates.15

All of the army's units were short of weapons, and what they had was older Soviet-supplied weaponry far inferior to that available to coalition forces. There were about 2,000 tanks and around 2,000 artillery, the vast majority of it towed. Also, the serviceability of the army's equipment was low.16

The air force had about 300 FGA, but again most were inferior types and their serviceability was questionable.17 Also, since late 2002 the US and Britain had stepped up their attacks on Iraqi air defenses in the no-fly zones in a way which made maintaining the cohesiveness of those defenses more difficult.18 In the weeks preceding the invasion, US and British aircraft increased their patrols of the northern and southern no-fly zones and carried out selective strikes against command, control and communications (C3) and air defense targets in an operation known as "Southern Focus".19 In the event, the coalition quickly gained complete air superiority.

Another factor in the coalition's favor, as it was in the 1991 war, was the West's vast lead in command and control techniques and in electronic warfare. Also, the Iraqis were inexperienced in fast-paced armored warfare; their backwardness in this area was a major contrast to the advanced tactical methods of the western armies. These factors were a major reason why Iraqi forces had difficulty inflicting casualties on their enemies.

John Keegan has argued that the Iraqi people did not support Saddam Hussein's confrontation with the US, and that this was a major reason why the regular Iraqi ground forces generally melted away before the advance of the invaders.20 Also, there were covert efforts before the war by the CIA, American military and Iraqi exiles to develop contacts with Iraqi commanders and persuade them not to fight. This subversion was blunted by Hussein's installation of Ba'athist teams at divisional headquarters. Nevertheless, the effort purportedly succeeded in persuading hundreds of Iraqi officers to quit the war and send their subordinates home.21 However, lack of support for Hussein did not necessarily translate into support for, or cooperation with, American and British forces. Cultural differences, distrust, coercion by the Fedayeen and fear of Hussein's supporters seem to have all played their part in limiting American-Iraqi and British-Iraqi cooperation. The battle for Nasiriyah was a good example of this (see 22-24 March).

The coalition plan called for a rapid advance northward. US V Corps was to make the main effort up the west bank of the Euphrates, approaching Baghdad via Karbala. I MEF would make the supporting effort, crossing the Euphrates at Nasiriyah, advancing up the Tigris-Euphrates river valley and approaching Baghdad on both sides of the Tigris. The British would take Basra.22

Until now, the plan had called for the air campaign to begin on the 21st and the ground advance the next day. However, in the early morning of the 20th (early evening of the 19th in Washington; the time difference was eight hours), there was a last minute change when intelligence indicated that Saddam Hussein was in a bunker at Dora Farms, a residential compound in south Baghdad, that night. Bush ordered a strike on the location; the report, however, was false.23 The start of major air and ground operations was moved up to later that day.24

The invaders made considerable use of special forces, particularly to operate in the desert west of the Euphrates. Unlike in the 1991 war, Iraq was able to fire few of its surviving Scud missiles.25

It does not appear that the Iraqis had a coherent plan for the defense of Iraq. Abed Mutlaq Jubouri, an Iraqi divisional commander during the invasion, said “There was no unity of command. There were five different armies...no cooperation or coordination. As to the defense of Baghdad, there was no plan.” 26

The West still erroneously believed that Iraq had chemical and biological weapon stocks (see October 2004), and there was great concern among the Americans that the use by the Iraqis of chemical weapons would make the smooth conduct of operations difficult for the coalition, though few were prepared to specify the extent of the Iraqis' stocks of such weapons, ability to deliver them, and willingness to use them. In the event, this threat, of course, never materialized.

Turkey, foreign policy

Parliament voted to approve US military overflights (Reuters).

Afghanistan

About 1,000 US and 3,000 Afghan troops began an anti-Taliban/al Qaeda sweep in the Samigar mountains east of Kandahar, in an area including the districts of Maruf, Arghistan and Shin Naray (Reuters).

20-21 MARCH 2003

Iraq

Late on the 20th and that night, coalition ground forces began crossing into Iraq.27 Elements of V Corp's 101st Airborne Division seized EXXON, an objective about 80 kilometers southwest of Nasiriyah, and established an arming and refueling point.28

United States

On the 20th, about 10,000 people demonstrated in Chicago against the war in Iraq. There were smaller protests in San Francisco and New York. Protests continued on a smaller scale the next day (Reuters).

20-23 MARCH 2003

Iraq, air operations

On the evening of the 20th, major coalition air and SLCM strikes began on targets in Baghdad, Mosul and elsewhere. The targets were air defenses, command, control and communications (C3) facilities and suspected missile sites.29 In Baghdad in particular, political targets such as government buildings were hit (Reuters). In the opening days of the campaign, coalition air forces devoted significant effort against these types of targets, while about half of air sorties were flown in close support of coalition ground forces. On the night of 22-23 March, air forces shifted their emphasis toward close support missions.30 Over the course of the entire campaign, 79% of air operations were close air support missions or “kill box” interdiction missions – direct targeting of Iraqi ground targets in support of coalition ground forces.31

21 MARCH 2003

Iraq

Coalition ground forces crossed over the border from Kuwait and advanced rapidly northward, meeting only sporadic resistance (Reuters). Two brigades of V Corp's 3rd Infantry Division reached the vicinity of Nasiriyah and, late that day, began attacking objectives south and west of the city including the Highway 1 bridge over the Euphrates just to the northwest. Iraqi resistance was light as most of the Iraqi 11th Infantry Division was deployed east and northeast of Nasiriyah.32 Part of 3rd Infantry Division bypassed Nasiriyah and continued on toward Samawah and Najaf.

East of the Euphrates, part of I MEF captured the Rumaila oil fields.33 British forces reached the outskirts of Basra.34 A combination of British and US marine forces took the Al Faw peninsula.35

Italy

About 200,000 demonstrated in Rome against the invasion of Iraq.

21-22 MARCH 2003

Middle East and North Africa

On the 21st, at least 5,000 protested in Cairo against the invasion. There were smaller protests in Sanaa, Yemen, in Amman, Jordan, and elsewhere. The next day, there were more protests in Cairo, while in Gaza, 10,000 demonstrated in support of Saddam Hussein (Reuters).

22 MARCH 2003

Iraq

The 3rd Infantry Division secured the Highway 1 bridge and the southern approaches to Nasiriyah that morning. It did not enter Nasiriyah but blocked it off pending the arrival of the Marines.36

Meanwhile, some elements of 3rd Infantry Division reached Samawah. Their intention, once again, was to secure blocking positions but not to enter the city. This was accomplished in the face of spirited but ineffective resistance from Fedayeen militia in the area.37

Late in the day a brigade of 3rd Infantry Division reached the vicinity of Najaf.38

US Marines captured Basra's international airport, on the west side of the city, later turning it over to the British and moving on north. By the next day the British had generally surrounded the city. They had hoped that Basra, being overwhelmingly a Shiite city, would surrender peacefully. But the Iraqi government was firmly in control there, and the British, wanting to find a way to capture the city with a minimum of civilian casualties, abandoned plans to immediately enter it.39

Europe

Police estimated 200,000 in London demonstrated against the war. An anti-war protest in Madrid by 100,000 people was accompanied by some violence. There were many other, mostly peaceful, protests in other cities, including one of 40,000 in Berlin (Reuters).

United States

At least 150,000 demonstrated in New York against the war (Reuters).

Asia and the Pacific

There were protests of several thousands against the war in several states across the region (Reuters).

22-24 MARCH 2003

Iraq

Advance Marine elements and Fedayeen militia arrived at Nasiriyah about the same time, on the night of the 22nd-23rd. The regular Iraqi army forces guarding the city had, for the most part, already deserted, though some still remained.40 US forces experienced some delay in getting across the Euphrates as some units got mixed up and there were some sharp clashes with the Fedayeen. Here, as elsewhere during the campaign, coalition forces took pains to limit casualties and collateral damage, sometimes obliging them to move cautiously against such resistance. Yet civilian casualties were unavoidable. This was especially likely to be true in a situation like Nasiriyah, a city US forces could not bypass and mask off but had to control since it was a crossing over the Euphrates that was vital for the development of the Marines' offensive. US forces had advanced quickly and arrived suddenly so that there was little warning for civilians to get out of harm's way. Iraqis already had an ambivalent attitude toward the Americans, and the attitude of the local residents was not improved by the entry of US forces into the city and the subsequent battle which included artillery and air strikes on targets not in direct line-of-sight.41 By the 24th a cordon had been set up around the city to prevent the infiltration of any more Fedayeen. It was not until the end of the month that the city was made safe for supply columns.42

Since the battle for Nasiriyah, some have raised questions about the Marines' conduct of the battle, the general thrust of most of them being that the attack should have been more carefully prepared. However, at least one Iraqi commander captured at Nasiriyah said that the suddenness and aggressiveness of the American assault prevented him from reacting in a timely way and demoralized his fighters.43

23 MARCH 2003

Slovenia, Foreign Policy

Referendums were held on membership in NATO and the EU. NATO won 66% support and the EU won 90%. The results were binding on the government and membership in both occured in May 2004 (Reuters).

Russia

Authorities held a referendum in Chechnya on a local constitution that would keep the province a part of Russia. They said 95% voted for the constitution; turnout was reportedly about 85% (Reuters).

25 MARCH 2003

Serbia and Montenegro

Police arrested Zvezdan Jovanivic, suspected of assassinating Zoran Djindjic on the 12th (Reuters).

25-27 MARCH 2003

Iraq

The 3rd Infantry Division isolated Najaf in the face of persistent but ineffectual attacks by Iraqi irregular forces.44 By this time V Corps had begun to outrun its supplies. Also, during this time, a strong weather system triggered dust/sandstorms that swept west to east through Iraq and Kuwait, slowing operations throughout the theater.45

Once through Nasiriyah, I MEF advanced north. Slowed by the dust storms, its 1st Regimental Combat Team (RCT 1) advanced toward Al Kut while RCT 5 and RCT 7, on the left, advanced toward Ad Diwaniyah.46 Between 26 and 28 March RCT 5 crushed Fedayeen opposition in and around Ad Diwaniyah and seized the airfield at Hantush, some 15 miles to the north.47 Hantush turned out to be, in the view of the Marines, a critical logistics hub.48

On the 27th, a temporary halt was called to the US advance to allow for resupply of V Corps.49 By this time the 82nd and 101st Airborne Divisions were being deployed in the V Corps area.

At Basra, on the 25th and 26th, the British defeated breakout attempts by some Iraqi armor.50

26 MARCH 2003

Iraq

Elements of the US 173rd Airborne Brigade dropped onto Harir airfield near Bashur, in the extreme north. In the following days the rest of the brigade was flown in.51

The area controlled by the Kurds roughly corresponded to the location of the Zagros Mountains in northern Iraq. The Kurds were divided politically, with the two main political factions being the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan and the Kurdistan Democratic Party. They had nevertheless succeeded in maintaining their autonomy because of US and British enforcement of the northern no-fly zone and through political maneuvers with both the Iranians and the Iraqis. They were aware of the deficiencies of their fighting forces and wished to avoid unnecessarily provoking either the Turks, who were opposed to increased Kurdish power, or the Iraqis. They therefore decided not to mount an advance on Kirkuk.52

The Americans did not possess a large enough ground force to carry out major independent operations against the Iraqis, but were able to employ air power to good effect. The Iraqi 5th and 1st Corps came under significant air attack from D+3 on and later came under some pressure from US and Kurdish forces. The same was true, to a lesser degree, of the Iraqi 2nd Corps further south, facing Iran.53

Ivory Coast

About 6,000 protestors attacked a French army camp at Daloa, allowing some of the 112 Ivorians being held there to escape. They had been detained by the French after an attack on rebel-held Bangolo earlier in the month (Reuters).

28 MARCH 2003

Iran

The government said it would allow members of the Iraq-based People's Mujahideen insurgents to return home to Iran if they renounced the armed struggle. "With respect to this group in Iraq, we are serious in implementing this decision. The Islamic Republic of Iran, out of pity, gave them this new chance", Intelligence Ministry spokesman Ahmad Rahim said. "We guarantee their life and will not arrest them although there are some people who committed special crimes inside and outside Iran. If they voice regret for what they did and do not repeat these mistakes, then we will help them solve the problem and lead a respectable life in their country", he said. Alireza Jafarzadeh, a spokesman for the Mujahideen in Washington, said, "This is the most ridiculous thing I have heard from an official of the regime." He said the government should first hold free and fair elections, free political prisoners, end torture and end its support of terrorism.54

28-30 MARCH 2003

Iraq

Strikes continued against Iraqi forces such as the Medina Republican Guard division in the vicinity of Karbala. In the I MEF area, the Baghdad Republican Guard Division around Al Kut and the 10th Armored Division in the vicinity of Al Amarah received attention from Marine aircraft and were ultimately degraded virtually to the point of ineffectiveness .55

In the north, about 10,000 Kurdish fighters, along with 100 US special forces and considerable air and artillery support, attacked an enclave on the Iranian border about 20 miles long and 5-10 miles deep controlled by the Ansar al-Islam terrorist group, which had about 650 fighters. Most of the enclave was overrun on the first day, with only pockets of resistance left to be dealt with. The Kurds said 250 Ansar fighters were killed and another 150 surrendered to the Iranians at the border.56

29 MARCH 2003

United States

Tens of thousands demonstrated in Boston against the war on Iraq (Reuters).

Germany

At least 50,000 people were involved in demonstrations in the north against the war in Iraq (Reuters).

30 MARCH 2003

Morocco

In the first major protest to be approved by authorities since the start of the war in Iraq, about 150,000 people demonstrated in Rabat against the US, Britain and Israel (Reuters).

Asia and the Pacific

About 150,000 demonstrated in Calcutta against the war in Iraq. There were also demonstrations of 100,000 in Peshawar, Pakistan, 50,000 in Cox's Bazar, Bangladesh, and 10,000 in Seoul (Reuters).

Iraq

By this time the 3rd Infantry Division was concentrated in the vicinity of Najaf and had been resupplied.57 The 101st Airborne Division had arrived and taken over the 3rd ID's positions around Najaf.

MARCH-APRIL 2003

Cuba, Civil Affairs

In late March, authorities launched a crackdown on the pro-democracy movement. Around 80 activists were arrested, including journalists Raul Rivero and Omar Rodriguez Saludes, economist Martha Beatriz and Hector Palacios. In early April, they were convicted of "working with a foreign power to undermine the government" and sentenced to jail terms of 6-28 years (Reuters).

30 MARCH-1 APRIL 2003

Iraq

Najaf was taken in a set-piece attack . The assault was carried out by two brigades of the 101st Airborne, with plentiful air support, attacking from both the south and the north. The city was secure by 1 April.58

31 MARCH 2003

Iraq

The 3rd Infantry Division began probing attacks in the Karbala area. Hindiya was taken.59

US officials said the US had used 700 Tomahawk cruise missiles and 8,000 precision-guided munitions (PGMs) against Iraqi targets since the war began, including 3,000 in the past three days (Reuters).

Notes

1. Todd S. Purdum, A Time of Our Choosing: America's War in Iraq, New York, Times Books, 2003, p. 101.

2. John Keegan, The Iraq War, New York, Alfred A. Knopf, 2004, p. 122.

3. Purdum, A Time of Our Choosing, pp. 102, 105.

4. Purdum, A Time of Our Choosing, pp. 110-111.

5. Keegan, The Iraq War, p. 117.

6. Phillip Mitchell, "War With Iraq, Ground Forces - USA and Allies, Situation as at: 21 March 2003", International Institute for Strategic Studies (www.iiss.org).

7. Cdr. Rodney Craig, "War With Iraq, Maritime Forces - USA and Allies, Naval Forces in the Gulf/Arabian Sea, and in Support of Operation ENDURING FREEDOM (Situation as at 21 March 2003)", International Institute for Strategic Studies (www.iiss.org).

8. Andrew Brookes, "Combat Air Force Assets in Place Around Iraq As at 21 March 2003", International Institute for Strategic Studies (www.iiss.org).

9. Col. Nicholas E. Reynolds, USMCR (Ret.), Basrah, Baghdad and Beyond: The U.S. Marine Corps in the Second Iraq War, Annapolis, Naval Institute Press, 2005, p. 43.

10. See Carl Conetta, The Wages of War: Iraqi Combatant and Noncombatant Fatalities in the 2003 Conflict, Project on Defense Alternatives Research Monograph #8, www.comw.org/pda/0310rm8.html, 20 October 2003, footnote #61.

11. Keegan, The Iraq War, pp. 128-29.

12. Keegan, The Iraq War, pp. 139-40.

13. Anthony H. Cordesman, The Iraq War: Strategy, Tactics and Military Lessons, Praeger, Westport, Connecticut, 2003, pp. 115-16.

14. Keegan, The Iraq War, p. 197.

15. Col. Gregory Fontenot, U.S. Army (Ret.), Lt. Col. E. J. Degan, USA, and Lt. Col. David Tohn, USA, On Point: The United States Army in Operation Iraqi Freedom, Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, 2005, pp. 101, 153.

16. Keegan, The Iraq War, p. 129.

17. Number and types from Brookes, "Combat Air Force Assets in Place Around Iraq", IISS.

18. Cordesman, The Iraq War, p. 58.

19. Purdum, A Time of Our Choosing, pp. 122-23.

20. Keegan, The Iraq War, pp. 5-7.

21. Purdum, A Time of Our Choosing, p. 230; Keegan, The Iraq War, p. 235.

22. Fontenot, et al., On Point, p. 55; Keegan, The Iraq War, p. 145.

23. Purdum, A Time of Our Choosing, pp. 107-110; Reynolds, Basrah, Baghdad and Beyond, p. 69.

24. Purdum, A Time of Our Choosing, p. 112.

25. Keegan, The Iraq War, p. 144-45.

26. Reynolds, Basrah, Baghdad and Beyond, p. 45.

27. Purdum, A Time of Our Choosing, p. 112.

28. Fontenot, et al., On Point, pp. 113-114.

29. Purdum, A Time of Our Choosing, p. 102.

30. Fontenot, et al., On Point, pp. 86-87.

31. Fontenot, et al., On Point, p. 250.

32. Fontenot, et al., On Point, pp. 115-119.

33. Keegan, The Iraq War, p. 147.

34. Purdum, A Time of Our Choosing, p. 145.

35. Cordesman, The Iraq War, p. 62.

36. Fontenot, et al., On Point, pp. 119-121.

37. Fontenot, et al., On Point, pp. 126-133.

38. Fontenot, et al., On Point, p. 161.

39. Purdum, A Time of Our Choosing, pp. 145-46.

40. Purdum, A Time of Our Choosing, p. 138.

41. Purdum, A Time of Our Choosing, pp. 139, 142.

42. Keegan, The Iraq War, pp. 152-53.

43. Reynolds, Basrah, Baghdad and Beyond, p. 81.

44. Fontenot, et al., On Point, pp. 198-209.

45. Fontenot, et al., On Point, p. 150.

46. Keegan, The Iraq War, p. 154.

47. Reynolds, Basrah, Baghdad and Beyond, p. 88.

48. Reynolds, Basrah, Baghdad and Beyond, pp. 95-96.

49. Keegan, The Iraq War, p. 156.

50. Purdum, A Time of Our Choosing, pp. 149-50.

51. Fontenot, et al., On Point, pp. 222-230; Purdum, A Time of Our Choosing, p. 153.

52. Purdum, A Time of Our Choosing, pp. 154, 157-58, 163.

53. Cordesman, The Iraq War, pp. 115-116.

54. "Iran Says Rebels in Iraq Can Return Home if They Recant", Reuters (www.reuters.com), 28 March 2003.

55. Reynolds, Basrah, Baghdad and Beyond, p. 93.

56. Purdum, A Time of Our Choosing, pp. 154, 158, 162-63.

57. Fontenot, et al., On Point, p. 244; Keegan, The Iraq War, p. 186.

58. Keegan, The Iraq War, p. 162.

59. Purdum, A Time of Our Choosing, p. 183.